Domestic politics of Spain before the First World War. Spain and Russia during the First World War. Crisis of the Weimar Republic. the rise of the NSDAP to power
Mountain peak
Why didn't Spain participate in World War I?
Spain had been losing influence in the Americas for the previous 100 years and the Spanish-American War had recently taken place. So how could Spain remain neutral?
Why can't Spain find a place in the Central Powers?
Answers
TED
In addition to Tom's answer, you have to ask yourself which side they came from. There is nothing really useful in terms of the territory they could get from Germany or Austria-Hungary, since both were on the other side of Europe.
If they had entered the other side, they could have gained useful territory from France. However, the French troops were generally considered to be of much higher quality than the Spanish, and the Piranean Mountains would prove to be a very tough defensive line to break into. To make matters worse, they would quickly find themselves in a two-front war, as Portugal was a longtime British ally, and would no doubt have been involved if England had done so (as happened 100 years ago at the start of the peninsula). War
I believe that the main reason for Spain's neutrality was their unique experience in the Peninsular War. This was the last time Spain allied itself with a major power, and that major power used the alliance to stab Spain in the back. The war that followed was bloody and fought almost entirely on Spanish soil with Spanish blood. We get the term "guerrilla warfare" from this conflict. When the smoke cleared, winners and losers went home and tabulated their gains or losses, but Spain was in ruins economically, socially and emotionally. So you can see where the Spaniards would be less inclined to join an alliance on a whim.
Finally, the country was still living through its humiliation in the Spanish-American War (known as "The Calamity" in Spain) a decade and a half ago. Their government at the time was a kind of bizarre attempt to secure a form of British constitutional monarchy, but without any real democracy. No wonder he had as much real popular support as people had real votes (au: almost none). I suspect it was quite clear to everyone that it was not stable enough to start a foreign war, and in fact it fell on its own about a decade after the end of World War I.
Tom Ay
There were two power blocs: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, Russia). Spain was not part of any of them and had no reason to support one side or the other (later Italy changed sides).
Spain was lucky to be outside the main areas of hostilities: France, Belgium, Poland, the Balkans, Western Russia. He had no reason to fight.
The US remained neutral until 1917, so Spain had no reason to side with the Central Powers on that basis. She also had no other common interests with them.
Russell
Nobody goes to war, damn it. +1
TED ♦
@ Russell - Well... you could bet that Italy did.
Dan Neely
@TED Portugal would be a better example than Italy. They had no reason to intervene other than that Britain was a traditional ally and felt it honored to help.
Tom Ay
@WS2: I wrote "Italy later switched sides" (as she did during World War II). But she was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary until the outbreak of the First World War. Most people forget this fact, so I keep reminding them. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882) First line: "The Triple Alliance was a military alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy." Even your own exile admits: "Nominally allied with the Central Powers German Empire and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, Kingdom of Italy..."
Basque_Spaniard
Spain was not ready for war in the Great War. It has been in the process of modernizing the country since the first industrial revolution reached Spain at this time.
Spain does not have the ability to build tanks or even aircraft, a prime example being the Spanish-American War. Spain has always had good soldiers, but for a moment great war it had rather outdated technology compared to some European countries or even the USA.
The Spanish army and air force were modernized in the 1920s thanks to strong links with English companies established in the late 19th century and early 20th century on the Spanish north and southwest coasts.
Spain was better prepared for World War II than for World War I, but the civil war devastated its economy until the US arrived in the 50s.
Basque_spaniards
Even though Spain couldn't enter ww1, it was almost like entering a war.
At the moment the Entente entered into cordial relations between France and Great Britain, a secret agreement was concluded regarding Spain in the event that Italy should enter Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Spain before the start of ww1 was trying to make a new deal to improve the size of the armada with 5 ships of the line and some cruisers and destroyers and needed permission from the UK.
Spain agreed that if Italy joined the Central Powers, it would provoke an intervention.
The agreement was drawn up in: 1. Great Britain accepted Spain to improve the armada. 2. 10 Spanish divisions to support France on the Italian border. 3. 5 naval divisions to carry out an amphibious landing in Italy.
Spain was obliged to intervene. However, Italy first declared neutrality, but later joined the Allies. Thus, the secret clause entente cordiale was not used.
The position of Spain in relation to the allies was a question of Morocco. France and Spain concluded an agreement on the division of the country, but Great Britain did not like Germany, but advocated a Spanish-French agreement that weakened Germany's position. This German involvement was poorly received by Spain.
Basque_Spaniards
Spain lagged behind other powers mainly because of the civil wars that took place before 1874. Spain later tried to recover. The military investment was only up to the US.
However, all Spanish-made equipment appeared only at the beginning of the 20th century.
Spain tried to modernize its army and navy. An example of the first modern Spanish battleship or first submarine was built in 1888. In correct terms, Spain had 8 years of delay compared to other powers.
It was not only a comparison with the fleet. The tank industry began in the 1920s during the Rif War (which used foreign tanks), while Britain began serious tank development during World War I. Not to mention that the same thing happened in the aircraft industry that the first all-Spanish fighter was made in the 1930s after the Rif War (foreign fighters are made under license from CASA). In the Reef War (1911-1927), Spain doubled its military budget to win the war.
The Spanish had two prominent major aviation companies (CASA and HA). The former produced transports and small surveillance aircraft in early times. While the second was the main fighters of the company.
Fighters HA (Hispano-Aviación): HS-32 and HS-34 (30s), HS-42 and HS-43 (40s), HA-56 and HA-60 (Spanish-German fighters were based on them, made in 45-59, which were forced to use in the Ifni war), HA-100 (modern Spanish evolution of HS-42 and HS-43, made in 51-53), HA-200 and HA-220 (the first Spanish advanced jet fighters did in 60-69). In 1971, CASA merged with HA to create the C-101 (70s and evolution of previous ones).
Tanks: Trubia and its improvements (1925-1938), Verdeya and its improvements (1938-1954), During 1954-1970 were the main American used tanks, the Spanish-French AMX-30 (1970-2002) and the Spanish-German leopard . 2 (2003-now)
CGCampbell
What does ASR mean?
TED ♦
White I appreciate the increase in votes my answer gets every time you create a new answer with a new account, perhaps your own case would be better served by simply editing one of your old answers to be better? Just a thought.
ASR
Spain was far away and did not care about the territorial-ethnic swamp in the Balkans, which provoked the war.
There was also no intense rivalry with other Western powers such as France-Germany.
No irredentism or disputed lands as a future price for the war effort.
Last but not least, the financial effort to equip the army for the Spanish–American War meant that defense spending in the early 20th century was negligible compared to other powers (even Bulgaria or Romania).<>(We are neutral because we can't be otherwise) A senior official deserved to comment.
All this sums up the Spanish Realpolitik during the war years.
user14394
Spain fought... and funded... "European" wars against " Ottoman Empire"throughout the centuries. Wisely they asked for money first in the 20th century. Even Franco was not "no mas" for Otto-men. Also don't forget Romania. "It's far from Spanish Morocco", not to mention the Azores, where there is currently a US nuclear submarine buried I think two 747s ended up there by accident too What are the chances?
Basque_Spaniard
With a disastrous war against Napoleon and then a civil war, Spain was not ready. Spain Before Alfonso XII came to power, it was a very unstable country. the period 1874-1920 was to rebuild and reset industrialization. This is not to say that the Spanish-American War was called the "Disaster of 1898".
In terms of population, Spain's growth is half that of the rest of Europe. Spain achieved doubling its population in 60 years, while the UK took just 30 years.
XIX. The century for Spain was a century of great decline, which did not recover with much work in the periods 1874-1975. a century of recovery (the Civil War and the first period of the Franco regime were a slowdown of almost 20 years).
In this part of our presentation, we will analyze the main vectors of relations between Spain and Russia during the First World War - in 1914-1918.
It should immediately be noted that the relationship between the two countries during the First World War, somewhat intensified. It can also be noted that the Russian embassy in Madrid, largely unexpectedly for Russian diplomats, found itself to some extent at the center of European politics. Let's consider this in more detail.
After August 1914, Spain, which declared its neutrality in the war, turned out to be one of the few countries capable of performing mediatory functions between the warring parties. The Russian embassy in Madrid often negotiated through the secretariat of King Alphonse XIII with Germany and Austria-Hungary on the issue of the exchange of prisoners. The analysis of cases for the protection of Russians in enemy territory became one of the main activities of the diplomatic mission during the war years. Khvostov V.M. History of diplomacy. In 2 t. Moscow: Pravda, 1963. - T.2. S. 238.
Thus, a key element of Russian-Spanish relations during the First World War was close humanitarian cooperation, which had a beneficial effect on the fate of many of our compatriots.
The outbreak of the First World War turned into a tragedy for millions of Europeans. The fatal shots in Sarajevo that claimed the life of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand echoed across the continent, disrupting the natural course of life in most countries of the Old World. Ibid., p. 240.
In the first months of the armed confrontation, tourists who spent the summer abroad and unexpectedly found themselves in enemy territory suffered the most. Even ten days before the tragic events, none of them even thought about the danger of an imminent war. Volkov G.I. Political history of Spain of the XX century - M., 2008. S. 110.
24 Russia and Spain. Documents and materials. 1667-1917. T 2. - M.: AST, 1997. S. 168.
Spain declared its neutrality in the pan-European conflict already on August 7 (a week after the start of hostilities).
The royal decree, adopted at the suggestion of the Prime Minister E. Dato, obligated all subjects of Alphonse XIII to observe strict neutrality in accordance with the laws and principles of international law. At the same time, Spain assumed the mission of protecting the citizens of the warring countries who found themselves in the territory of the enemy. From that time until almost the end of the war, the Spanish embassies in Berlin and Vienna represented the interests of Russia. Solovyov Yu.Ya. Memoirs of a Diplomat. 1893-1922. - M.: Harvest, 2003. S. 287.
In the first days of the war, the Russian Foreign Ministry organized an information desk at the Spanish Embassy in Petrograd about Russians who remained on the territory of enemy countries. Through the same structure, money transfers were later made to compatriots who fell into a difficult situation: relatives of people stuck in Germany or Austria-Hungary could send them up to 300 rubles a month. Ibid., p. 289.
As M. Rossiysky notes: “Employees of the Spanish embassies in Berlin and Vienna issued this money to the recipients. Only on the first day of the operation of this channel, more than 45 thousand rubles were received from Petrograd on the accounts of both embassies” Ibid., p. 290. .
The Spanish ambassador to Berlin, Luis Polo de Bernabe, the ambassador to Vienna, Antonio de Castro y Casaleis, and the envoy to Brussels, the Marquis de Villalobar, were very zealous about their obligations. The diplomats of King Alphonse helped the return of the Russians with everything they could. Thanks to their support, many of our compatriots, who experienced many difficulties and hardships along the way, still managed to break through home through neutral Sweden and Russian Finland. Solovyov Yu.Ya. Memoirs of a Diplomat. 1893-1922. - M.: Harvest, 2003. S. 244.
The Spanish king took an active part in the work in the humanitarian direction. With his personal secretariat, Alphonse XIII ordered the creation of a Prisoner Assistance Bureau, which during the war years managed to find and repatriate 21 thousand prisoners of war and about 70 thousand civilians of different nationalities. A considerable number of them were our compatriots. The Russian embassy in Madrid often negotiated through the secretariat with hostile states on the issue of the exchange of prisoners. The analysis of cases for the protection of Russians in enemy territory became one of the main activities of the diplomatic mission during the war years.
Thanks to the responsible attitude of Alfonso XIII to the humanitarian obligations undertaken, the Spanish embassies in Berlin and Vienna turned over the years of the war into coordinating centers of work aimed at alleviating the plight of Russian prisoners of war, as well as rescuing innocently convicted Russian subjects. The most difficult situations were controlled personally by the king. Often, his intervention ensured the success of activities on the outcome of which a person’s life depended. This was most clearly manifested in the case of the release of a Russian priest who spent 22 months in an Austrian prison. Ibid., p. 247.
Another episode is also known, demonstrating the concern of the Spanish king for Russian prisoners of war. At the beginning of the 20th century, there was a tradition in many European armies to transfer individual military units under the symbolic patronage of friendly foreign monarchs. The Spanish king in the Russian army also had such a “patronage unit” - the 7th Olviopol Lancers Regiment. Alphonse XIII managed to achieve privileged conditions of detention for Russian soldiers and officers from his “sponsored” unit Mednikov I.Yu. who were in the Austro-Hungarian captivity. Spain during the First World War - M., 2007. S. 187. .
In 1917, Alphonse XIII attempted to facilitate the sending of the latter's family abroad. Russian emperor who was under arrest after February Revolution. The king even shared his plans in this regard with the ambassador of the Russian Provisional Government A.V. Neklyudov. Russia and Spain. Documents and materials. 1667-1917. T 2. - M.: AST, 1997. S. 192.
Diplomatic representatives of tsarist Russia and the Provisional Government repeatedly expressed their gratitude to Alfonso XIII for his concern for the rights of Russian prisoners and internees. Unfortunately, the long-term activity of the king for the benefit of our compatriots has not yet been properly covered by either Spanish or Russian experts studying the history of bilateral relations, and remains generally little known to the general public of our countries.
In quotation marks, it is worth noting about another aspect of Russian-Spanish relations of that time, which was not entirely positive from the point of view of the monarchical government of Spain. We mean the vector that the Russian revolution betrayed to the labor movement in Spain Quoted from: Volkov G.I. Political history of Spain of the XX century - M., 2008. S. 126-128. .
In 1917, the semi-anarchist and semi-socialist trade unions called for the first nationwide strike to protest rising prices and the appointment of King Alphonse XIII to the Conservative cabinet. Strikes began in Barcelona and Madrid and soon spread to Bilbao, Seville and Valencia. The Spanish economy was paralyzed. The army marched out and swept away the strikers. Hundreds of workers were killed and strike leaders were imprisoned.
After the military upsurge in industry ended, thousands of workers were left without work. Mindful of the success of the Russian revolution, the anarchists resumed the street struggle. Martial law was again introduced in Barcelona Volkov G.I. Political history of Spain of the XX century - M., 2008. S. 134. .
Anti-army sentiments prevailed among the masses. To top it all off, 15,000 soldiers were killed during another attempt to conquer Morocco. The investigation into the events in Morocco led to the fall of the government of Garcia Prieto, a former monarchist who, under the influence of the course of events, became a liberal and came to power.
Terrorism intensified against the church and the army: the Cardinal Bishop of Zaragoza was killed, but the government did not succumb to the demands of the army to apply more severe measures to the protesters. In September 1923, the Barcelona garrison rebelled. This was followed by numerous mutinies throughout the country, and the civil government fell. With the blessing of King Alfonso XIII, power in Spain passed to the captain-general of Barcelona, Miguel Primo de Rivera.
After the October Revolution, Spain withdrew its ambassador from Russia. In early January 1918, diplomat Yu.Ya. Solovyov sent a personal note to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Spain, in which, "in view of the fact that the Spanish government does not recognize the government existing in Russia," he declared that he considered his mission in Madrid ended. Russia and Spain. Documents and materials. 1667-1917. T 2. - M.: AST, 1997. P. 194. Shortly thereafter, the Russian representative received a farewell audience with Alfonso XIII and already on February 1 left Spain. Solovyov Yu.Ya. Memoirs of a Diplomat. 1893-1922. - M.: Harvest, 2003. A 15-year pause has come in Russian-Spanish relations.
Thus, based on the study of Russian-Spanish relations during the First World War, we can draw several intermediate conclusions of our work:
Relations between the two countries during the First World War, somewhat intensified. It can also be noted that the Russian embassy in Madrid, largely unexpectedly for Russian diplomats, found itself to some extent at the center of European politics. This is due to the fact that Spain, which has declared its neutrality, has largely taken on mediating functions between the warring powers, representing in a number of cases the interests of ordinary Russians;
A key element of Russian-Spanish relations during the First World War was close humanitarian cooperation, which had a beneficial effect on the fate of many of our compatriots. At the same time, Spain assumed the mission of protecting the citizens of the warring countries who found themselves in the territory of the enemy. From this time until almost the end of the war, the Spanish embassies in Berlin and Vienna represented the interests of Russia;
Diplomatic representatives of tsarist Russia and the Provisional Government repeatedly expressed their gratitude to Alphonse XIII for his concern for the rights of Russian prisoners and internees;
Another aspect of Russian-Spanish relations of that time is connected with the vector that the Russian revolution betrayed to the labor movement in Spain. The semi-anarchist and semi-socialist trade unions in Spain have noticeably stepped up their activities, inspired, first of all, by the successes of the Russian revolution. It can be assumed that the social and revolutionary movement in Spain, which unfolded under the influence of Russian revolutionary ideas, led to the transition of Spain to a military dictatorship, which took place in 1923.
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Geographical position Spain is located in southwestern Europe and occupies approximately 85% of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the Balearic and Pitius Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Under the control of Spain are the cities of Ceuta and Melilla (in Morocco) and the islands of Velez de la Gomera, Alusenas and Chafaranas. Total area: 504,750 sq. km. land - 499,400 sq. km. water - 5,350 sq. km. Spain has land borders with France - 623 km, Portugal - 1,214 km, Andorra - 65 km, the English colony of Gibraltar - 1.2 km, with Morocco (Ceuta) - 6.3 km, (Melilla) - 9.6 km. The total length of the border on land: total - 1,919.1 km, coastline - 4,964 km. In the east and south, the country is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, in the west - by the waters Atlantic Ocean . Spain is located at the crossroads of important sea and air routes connecting Europe with the African and American continents and occupies a strategic position along the Strait of Gibraltar. Spain stands out from other European countries. Its position at the crossroads of Europe and Africa, the Christian world and the world of Islam, the closed Mediterranean and the boundless Atlantic left an indelible mark on the entire face of the country. There is always room for surprise! That is why Spain is one of the world's largest centers of tourism and recreation. Tourists are attracted mainly by ancient cities and sunny beaches. Few people know that after Switzerland, Spain is the most mountainous country in Europe: mountains occupy 90% of its territory. And the Pyrenees are not the highest mountains in Spain. The southeast of the country is occupied by the Cordillera Betica - a system of mountain ranges and ranges, second only to the Alps in height. The highest point - Mount Mulasen - is located near Granada. This is the southernmost part of Europe where snow remains in summer! Despite the fact that the Iberian Peninsula is surrounded on almost all sides by the sea, the climate of the country is determined not so much by the ocean as by the mountains that protect it from external influences. In Spain, the vertical zonality of the climate is very noticeable: you can shiver from the cold, wrapping yourself in a warm shawl high in the mountains and watching how, somewhere far below, children are splashing in the warm waves of the gentle sea. Spain is multifaceted, each time it appears before you differently, unexpected, but always excitingly interesting. Why this country is called Spain, no one will say now, even the Spaniards themselves. In ancient times, this land was inhabited by Iberian tribes, after whose name the entire peninsula from the middle of the first millennium BC began to be called Iberia. The Greeks called this country Hesperia, the Land of the Evening Star. After the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern, the Western was officially called "Hesperia". From the 2nd century BC e., that is, from the time of the penetration of the Romans into Spain, the country was called "Hispania". Some historians suggest that "Hispania" is a corruption of "Hesperia". But who can say this with certainty now? Socio-political situation The Spanish bourgeoisie of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was not particularly courageous, not least because of its weakness. In the country, it was stifled by feudal reaction, in world markets (even in its own colonies, where, formally, foreigners were not allowed, but where they were smuggling on a large scale), places were already occupied by Anglo-French capital. As a consequence of the lack of decisive leadership, the bourgeois revolutions of the period 1808-74. were distinguished by half-heartedness, ended in defeats and the loss of most of the revolutionary gains. At first, the bourgeoisie was indecisive because of its weakness, then, when it built up its muscles, it became indecisive because it was afraid of the radicalization of the growing proletariat, which was increasingly rising up in the struggle. As a result, the bourgeois transformations of the 19th century bore the stamp of a compromise between the Spanish bourgeoisie and the feudal nobility, the monarchy and the church. Spain entered the era of imperialism, retaining feudal vestiges that were extremely difficult to eliminate, since the bourgeoisie, fearing the proletariat, preferred an alliance with landlord, monarchist and clerical circles, which imposed the need to preserve the privileges of the allies, while the development of capitalism required their liquidation. The growing crisis required the leadership of the proletariat even to solve bourgeois problems, which, in the conditions of the world crisis of capitalism, which began with the war in 1914, gave it the opportunity, relying on the revolutionary upsurge of the masses, to try to solve the problems of the socialist revolution. Monarch of Spain Alphonse XIII (r. 1902-1931) had a reactionary military-religious upbringing, unwillingness to give up his power in favor of the bourgeois-democratic reforms that were so necessary for the country. Alphonse XIII sinned with Germanophilia and was an ardent admirer of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, whom he tried to imitate in everything. The famous Spanish novelist Blasco Ibanez wrote about them (about Wilhelm and Alphonse): “Two comedians of different origin and age, claiming to play the same role. Their character is identical: the same love of acting, the same passionate desire to attract attention, interfere in everything, manage everything, make speeches, the same confidence that they sign the most brilliant manifestos in the world. The same love of dressing up: at two o'clock in the afternoon Alphonse XIII is in the uniform of an admiral, at three o'clock he is a hussar of death, at four o'clock he is a lancer. Every hour of the day it appears in a new form.” in 1898, Spain was embroiled in an unwanted war with the United States, which “in the name of humanity, in the name of civilization and in the name of protecting endangered American interests” took away from Spain most of its colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, etc. The loss of the colonies hurt the economic interests and pride of the Spanish bourgeoisie. The backward economy deprived her of the opportunity to have a modern army. The fleet, also far from modern, was destroyed by the Americans, and the construction of a new squadron was started only in 1908 under the law on the navy. Thus, Spain lost any opportunity to wage colonial wars away from its own territory. Meanwhile, the division of the world was coming to an end. However, this did not lead to a revolution, but the defeat was perceived as a national catastrophe. The need for reforms was felt not only by the opposition, but also by the ruling circles. Representatives of national culture and political parties were looking for ways to overcome the economic backwardness of the country. The “Generation of 98” had a huge impact on Spain in the first third of the 20th century, i.e. the period when the immediate conditions of the armed conflict of 1936-1939 were ripening. Spain did not participate in the First World War; therefore, capitalist contradictions were not revealed here to the same extent as in the warring countries. Moreover, not participating in the war and receiving orders from the Entente countries, she used her position to rise national economy , and even raising the standard of living of certain categories of workers, which, however, did not stop the revolutionary upsurge even before the end of the war. The end of the First World War changed the situation, once again revealed the weakness of the Spanish economy: wanting to heal the economy destroyed by the war, the world powers covered their markets with prohibitive duties, Spain's share in world trade turned out to be even lower than before the war. If in 1918 positive trade balance exceeded 385 million pesetas, then in 1920. the foreign trade balance became sharply negative, its deficit exceeded 380 million pesetas. The revolutionary uprisings of the working people, the terror of the anarchists, the setbacks in the colonial war in Morocco aggravated the old sores of Spanish society even more. However, the social conflict did not have time to gain full momentum - capitalism still had some reserve of time and energy. He was able to cope with the revolutionary movement quite easily. The disunity and disorganization of the workers, not least due to the prevailing influence of anarchism, had an effect, as well as terror, which weakened the leadership of workers' organizations in a period when the economic upsurge associated with the world war had not yet ended, i.e. when social contradictions have not reached their highest point. The relatively liberal dictatorship of General Primo de Riviera, established on September 13, 1923 as a result of a coup d'etat (which, however, received the support of King Alfonso XIII and the Spanish society), gave capitalist Spain a few more years of "prosperity" behind a high wall of customs duties. The last one was put to an end by the world economic crisis of 1929-1933, which pushed the country towards reformism. In January 1930, the dictator who had headed the Spanish government since 1923, General Primo de Riviera, in response to the proposal of King Alfonso XIII to resign, completely unexpectedly submitted, and in February 1931 the Constitution was restored in the country. In April, municipal elections were held, in which the supporters of the monarchy were defeated. The victorious Republicans called on Alfonso XIII to abdicate. In response, the king left the country, but refused to formally abdicate. A coalition government of socialists, liberals and republicans came to power with the participation of several monarchists. Spain was proclaimed a republic. A program of moderate reforms was outlined, the implementation of which, however, was immediately complicated by the conflicts of the new regime with the Catholic Church, on the one hand, and the opposition of anarchists and communists, on the other. Soon, however, the new regime exhausted itself. The republic, with its meager reforms, did not satisfy the interests of the proletariat and the peasantry, whose demands became ever more insistent, and who increasingly turned their attention to the example of the October Revolution in Russia. She was not satisfied with the reaction, which was dissatisfied with even the smallest infringement of its privileges and which was not satisfied with the inability of the republic to stop the growth of the revolutionary movement. Republic 1931-1936 became the field in which two irreconcilable class interests matured, two irreconcilable class and political groupings, which inevitably had to collide in a fierce bloody battle for annihilation, during which Spain had to determine the path of its further development, throwing out bourgeois democracy as completely unsuitable instrument for that era. In July 1936, the Spanish fascists and other right-wing forces, led by Generals E. Mola and F. Franco, rebelled against the democratic government of the Popular Front, which had arisen by the mid-1930s. in Spain. The Popular Front was an attempt to rally all democratic forces in the face of the threat of a fascist dictatorship. However, participation in these fronts of radical left groups, including communists, undermined their unity. The communists sought to use the popular front not so much to fight fascism as to establish their own dictatorship. Although the origins of the conflict were rooted in a hundred-year-old dispute between traditionalists and proponents of modernization, in Spain in the 1930s. it took the form of a clash between fascism and the anti-fascist Popular Front bloc. This was facilitated by the internationalization of the conflict, the involvement of other countries in it. Prime Minister J. Giral appealed to the French government for help, Franco appealed to A. Hitler and B. Mussolini. Berlin and Rome were the first to respond to the call for help, sending 20 transport aircraft, 12 bombers and the Usamo transport ship to Morocco (where Franco was then stationed). By the beginning of August, the African army of the rebels was transferred to the Iberian Peninsula. On August 6, the southwestern grouping under the command of Franco began to march on Madrid. At the same time, the northern group under the command of Mola moved to Caceres. A civil war began, claiming hundreds of thousands of lives and leaving ruins behind. Germany and Italy, openly taking the side of Franco, generously supplied the rebels with weapons and troops. They sent Franco a large contingent of military instructors, the German Condor legion and a 125,000-strong Italian expeditionary force. On the other hand, in October 1936, the Comintern initiated the creation of international brigades, which gathered anti-fascists from many countries under their banners. To fight the Nazis, weapons were also sent to Spain (including tanks, aircraft, heavy guns). Other European countries and the United States said they consider the civil war that began in Spain to be her internal affairs and therefore do not intend to interfere. The military conflict was aggravated by the creation of two different types of statehood: a republic, where from September 1936 to March 1939 the government of the Popular Front, headed by the socialists F. Largo Caballero and J. Negrin, was in power, and an authoritarian regime in the so-called. the national zone, where the entire legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in his hands by General Franco. Traditional establishments prevailed in the national zone. In the republican zone, the land was nationalized, and large industrial enterprises and banks were confiscated and transferred to the trade unions. In the national zone, all the parties that supported the regime were united in April 1937 into the "Spanish Traditionalist Falange", led by Franco. In the republican zone, the rivalry between socialists, communists, and anarchists resulted in open clashes, right up to the armed putsch in May 1937 in Catalonia. The fate of Spain was decided on the battlefields. Franco until the end of the war was never able to capture the capital - Madrid. In the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara, the Italian corps was defeated. The unfavorable outcome for the Republicans of the 113-day "battle of the Ebro" in November 1938 predetermined the outcome of the civil war. On April 1, 1939, the war in Spain ended with the victory of the Francoists. About the result of the bloody, destructive civil war Between 1936 and 1939, the following figures speak convincingly: about 1 million people died during the war; at least 500 thousand Spaniards were forced to leave their homeland, fleeing the revenge of the victors. According to the estimates of the prominent Spanish economist Roman Tamames, in 1939-1940. agricultural production was only 21% of the pre-war level, and industrial - 31%. In 192 cities and towns, up to 60% of all buildings were destroyed, 250,000 apartments were completely destroyed, and another 250,000 could not be used. The country has lost almost half of the rolling stock of railways, 30% of the ships of the merchant fleet, more than 70% of vehicles. The incomes of the bulk of the working people at the end of 1939 fell to the level of 1900. It took the country more than 10 years to eliminate only the material damage caused by the war. The Francoists brought down the most severe terror on their real and potential opponents. All political parties supporting the republic, such as the Spanish Communist Party (CPI), the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), various republican parties, leading trade union organizations, were banned. About 2 million Spaniards passed through prisons and concentration camps in the first post-war years. The historical position of Spain at the beginning of the 20th century. was an agro-industrial country, relatively backward by Western European standards. The development of capitalism during the formation of its monopoly stage took place with the preservation of the remnants of feudalism, in the conditions of the preservation of the monarchy, the dominance of latifundists (big landowners) in the countryside and the merging of the financial and industrial elite with the landed aristocracy. The unified financial-landlord oligarchy relied on an alliance with the Catholic Church and foreign capital, which predominated in modern industries. The delay in the development of capitalism did not allow the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula to merge into a single nation with a single language and culture. Of the country's 24 million population, 7 million were national minorities. Basques, Catalans and Galicians continued to oppose the Spaniards, largely retained their language and serious (at least for the first two) separatist or autonomist sentiments. 2 million people were employed in industry and transport - 22% of the working population of Spain. Industrial enterprises were distributed extremely unevenly throughout the country. Large modern enterprises were concentrated mainly in Catalonia, Asturias, the Basque Country. At the same time, a significant part of Spanish industry barely emerged from the manufacturing period. Ilya Ehrenburg during his trip to Spain at the end of 1931. he describes the economic contrasts of the country before him in this way: “The electrical station “Saltos del Duero” is being built near Zamora. It will be “the most powerful station in Europe”. An American city grew up on the rocky shores of Duero: dollars, German engineers, civil guards, strikes, blueprints, numbers, one and a half million cubic meters, energy abroad, new stock issues, fires, roar, cement plants, outlandish bridges, not twenty, but twenty first century. One hundred kilometers from the electric station, one can find villages where people not only have never seen an electric light bulb, but where they have no idea of an ordinary chimney, they are swarming in a fumes so ancient that it is easy to forget about the passage of time altogether. The main part of modern enterprises was under the control of foreign capital. By 1930 direct foreign investment in the Spanish economy reached 1 billion dollars. Among the foreign capital invested in Spanish industry over several decades in the most profitable sectors of the economy, the most important were: Belgian (0.5 billion francs) invested in railways and tram lines, French (3 billion) - in the mining, textile and chemical industries, Canadian - in hydroelectric power plants in Catalonia and the Levant, British (5 billion), which controlled the entire metallurgy of the Basque Country, shipbuilding and, together with Rio Tinto, copper mines, American, which controlled, in particular, telephone networks and electricity production in certain regions (as Traction Light Electric Power controlled 9/10 of electricity production in Catalonia), and finally German ones, connected with electricity production in the Levant and trying to infiltrate metallurgy. In general, however, Spanish industry could not successfully compete with the industry of the advanced countries, especially with the onset of the Great Depression, when the customs barriers protecting the markets of the latter became especially high. On the world market, Spain could mainly offer agricultural products and its subsoil. The process of concentration of production in Spain was slow. Only the metallurgy of the Basque Country gave us an example of a large modern capitalist industry. In Catalonia, the textile industry, which plays a leading role there, has been largely dispersed among small enterprises. The pace of development of the Spanish economy was quite high under the dictatorship of Primo de Riviera. However, the global economic crisis interrupted this recovery. In Spain itself, the crisis continued until the outbreak of World War II. If we take the period of the Great Depression itself, then the decline in production, compared with other countries, was not so great: in 1932 it amounted to 10% compared to 1929 (compared to more than 50% for the USA and Germany). But for Spain, with its backwardness and poverty, this was enough to bring the misery of the working people to an extreme. Moreover, the economic recovery did not resume later. In March 1936, i.e. the day after the election victory of the Popular Front, the index of industrial production was only 77% of the pre-crisis level. The level of stock quotation in 1935 fell to 63% in relation to the same 1929. The peseta fell by 35% in 1931 in relation to 1929, by another 10% in 1932 and remained practically unchanged until 1936. The mining industry was especially affected: iron ore production fell from 6559 thousand tons in 1930 to 1760 in 1933, rising in 1936 to 2633, copper ore - from 63.7 thousand tons in 1929 to 30 in 1934 and 1935 , the extraction of manganese ores decreased almost to zero, pyrite - 3867 thousand tons in 1929 to 2286 - in 1935. Things were better with coal mining: 7120 thousand tons in 1930, falling to 5932 in 1934, and rising to 7017 in 1935. But Spanish coal could not compete in price with English. To avoid undesirable consequences for citrus exports (of which the UK was the main buyer), the country was forced to regularly import English coal in order to balance the trade balance. Accordingly, metallurgical production also decreased: steel production decreased from 1003 thousand tons in 1929 to 580 in 1935, copper production, respectively, from 28.5 to 10.8 thousand tons, etc. Shipbuilding experienced a severe crisis. In 1929, 37 ships were launched, in 1931 - 48, in 1932 - 11, in 1933 and 1934 - 18 each, in 1935 - only 3. The situation in the energy sector (2433 million kW - in 1929, 3198 - in 1934) and in construction. The consequence of the crisis was ever-increasing unemployment. If in December 1931 it was 400 thousand people, then in December 1933 it was 600 thousand. On the eve of the war, in June 1936, it crossed the line of 800 thousand people. The situation was aggravated by the return of emigrants, mainly from Latin America - about 100 thousand people during the 30s. The situation in agriculture was more encouraging. In general, it gave 2/5 of the national income. The production of grain, rice and corn remained at the same level or increased. The total catch of fish (marine) increased by a third. The area where oranges were grown has increased by half compared to 1926. During the years of the Republic, the export of oranges reached a record level, amounting to more than 20% of all Spanish exports. True, the latest increase was also a consequence of a decrease in exports of a number of other products. So the export of wine and olive oil amounted to in the mid-30s. only a quarter of the 1930 level. It cannot be said that the republic did not try to change anything. There were many projects, and a number of them were implemented. Energy in their implementation was invested by the Minister of Finance, and then the Minister of Public Works, Indalecio Prieto. Dam building, irrigation and afforestation have contributed to the development of agriculture and the growth of electricity generation. Railways were electrified, the construction of the railway tunnel under the Sierra de Guadarrama, begun by Primo de Riviera, was completed, many highways were reconstructed, etc. On the whole, however, the republic's attempt to modernize the economy has been a complete failure. The old social system interfered with this goal. What was needed was a new one (or, at least, a radically updated one), which would not only direct human and financial resources accordingly, but also be able to unite a society (including by force), torn apart by economic and social conflicts that paralyze the implementation of these tasks . Spanish phalangism, which came to power as a result of a military putsch led by General Francisco Franco, sought to establish its own, specific version of the fascist, totalitarian regime in the country. He was characterized by the same extreme nationalism, chauvinism, which distinguished other fascist movements. Large industrialists and landowners secretly fed the Falangists with their monetary donations, for which the latter, having come to power, protected the interests of their patrons in every possible way. The power of the punitive apparatus of the state turned against those who did not want to submit to the fascist dictatorship. A cruel dictator turned out to be at the head of the regime, capable of drowning his own people in blood with the help of soldiers and bayonets of the “friendly” armies of the fascist “axis” states. When creating his own state, Franco inevitably had to turn to the experience of his “colleagues”. The nationalist slogan of the revival of “great Spain” helped him “process” the masses. As you can see, the establishment of the fascist dictatorship in Spain was facilitated by economic upheavals and, as a result, the growing struggle of workers to improve their economic situation. Under these conditions, the inability of the ruling bourgeois-liberal elite to find a way out and neutralize the situation, threatening an explosion of popular indignation, was revealed with particular clarity. The democratic forces failed to offer worthy resistance to fascism. The offensiveness and viability of fascism were underestimated by both the liberal-bourgeois representatives of the ruling class and the left parties. A generalizing analysis of the conditions for the formation and strengthening of the fascist regime in Spain makes it possible to single out four stages of its development. First stage. Coming to power during the period of exacerbation of the general crisis that engulfed all spheres of the life of the state: political, economic, social. The rapid establishment of public order through the harsh suppression of those who disobey the regime. Streamlining the economy, accompanied by a fall in unemployment and inflation, through targeted state regulation. The transformation of the leaders of political movements that came to power into dictators. At this stage, everyone is outwardly satisfied. Those who are dissatisfied are forced into silence, repressed or emigrated from the country. Second stage. Intoxication with state and military power. Transition to the preparation of territorial expansion. Polishing the idea of national superiority. The final rejection of the principles of democracy. Third stage. Complete reprisal against internal dissent under the slogan of the unity of the nation (party) in the face of external threats. Encroachments on the territory of neighboring states, unleashing a war. Fourth stage. Overstrain of internal forces and resources. The emergence of internal contradictions of the regime. And as a result, the collapse of the regime - during the life of the dictator or immediately after his death.
Crisis of the Weimar Republic. The rise of the NSDAP to power
Weimar Republic: features of development
After the elections of January 19, 1919 to the National Assembly (with the participation of all parties), a new parliament and government were formed, the first president of the new republic, F. Ebert (SPD), was elected. It was called Weimar (Weimar, away from restless Berlin, where the Parliament met). On July 31, 1919, its constitution was adopted - Germany became a federal republic, with a strong presidential power, but also a government responsible to the parliament. Throughout the 20s. in Germany, coalition governments led by the SPD + two small parties (the Center Party and the German Democratic Party) were in power. Social Democrats and Liberals.
From the moment of its inception, the young republic was forced to fight against the attacks of radicalists from both the right and the left. Left forces accused the Social Democrats of collaborating with the old elite and betraying the ideals of the labor movement. The rightists blamed the supporters of the republic - the "November criminals" - for the defeat in the First World War, reproaching them for having stuck a knife in the back of the "invincible on the battlefield" German army with their revolution.
Parliamentary democracy, which was the result of the November Revolution, was gradually losing its positions. Although the conditions for the existence of the Weimar Republic in the second half of the 20s. were no longer as gloomy as they were in the early 1920s. By 1926, the economic (and political) situation in the country had stabilized, and the post-war crisis had been overcome. Reasons: since 1924
1) easing the conditions for the payment of reparations by Germany
2) providing American (and English)
The influx of American capital contributed to the modernization of production and the rise of the German economy. It was possible to bring down inflation, reduce unemployment, enterprises began to make a profit and, accordingly, pay taxes, thus the state could pay reparations.
Thus, despite the complex (difficult) internal political processes in Western European countries, in general, the period 1924-1929. marked by relative stability.
58. Domestic policy of National Socialism
Having gained access to executive power, the Nazis began to successively abolish parliamentary democracy.
1) first of all, they eliminated the principle of separation of powers, legislative functions were transferred to the government. It was removed from the control of parliament and could issue any laws, including changing the constitution. The Reichstag is an "obedient voting machine".
2) liquidated all parties except the NSDAP. March - ban on the KKE, June - ban on the SPD as a "Marxist party", July - the process of "unification", i.e. "voluntary" self-dissolution of all bourgeois parties, prohibition of the formation of new parties
3) the entire press is under control,
4) trade unions are banned, instead of them - the German Labor Front, as an organ of "cooperation" of workers and entrepreneurs
5) according to the administrative reform, the land parliaments and all local governments were liquidated, their functions were transferred to the governors (stadtholders), who were also the leaders of the local branch of the NSDAP (gauleiters)
6) On June 30, 1934, on the orders of Hitler, a "night of long knives" was held, during which about 2 thousand party members = party competitors, all dissatisfied with Hitler's actions (a kind of purge of the party) were destroyed. The official version is an attempt at a conspiracy against Hitler.
7) the state secret police (Gestapo) was created, the death penalty by hanging was introduced, a system of concentration camps was created (23 concentration camps and 2 thousand of their branches were created in total), free exit from the country was prohibited (special visas)
8) after the death of Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, Hitler combined the powers of the president and the chancellor, was proclaimed Fuhrer, leader of the nation (for life).
Thus was created new mechanism authorities: Fuhrer - Nazi government - Gauleiters. Totalitarian regime. On December 1, 1933, the law " On Ensuring the Unity of the Party and the State. Hitler solemnly declared: "the party has become the state."
As for the second task, decisive measures were expected from the new government to bring the country out of the crisis. For this:
The Nazis are on their way all-round strengthening of state intervention into the economy, its strict regulation and regulation by the state. At the core:
1) sharp increase in government spending. Partially, the necessary funds were received from Aryanizations" economy, i.e. dispossession of non-Aryans, primarily Jews, including banks and businesses. But the main thing is different: the state budget deficit was covered by the issuance of paper money, but at the same time - tight administrative control over prices and wages.
2) most expenses amounted to expenses for creation of a military industry and armed forces. It was the accelerated development of the military industry (militarization of the economy) that provided a faster way out of the crisis.
3) The elimination of unemployment was also facilitated by state-subsidized public works and programs to create new jobs. The costs of these programs can be compared with military spending, such importance was attached to them.
4) The system is not indirect (as in the USA), but direct regulation of the economy, the direct control of the state over the course of production and distribution of products.
Was created Imperial Ministry of Economy which took control of the entire economy of the country. Used m forced cartelization method: all enterprises united in industry cartels, within which the distribution of resources and orders was carried out.
Thus, the freedom of entrepreneurship was significantly limited, everything was determined by officials, from the slightest step in the field of production activities to the decision to close an enterprise or re-profile it.
Regulation of labor relations. The idea of social partnership. Instead of unions People's Labor Front which included both workers and employers. The head of the enterprise is the "leader of the labor collective." Labor relations were controlled by "labor trustees" appointed by the government.
Agriculture. The reliance was placed on the encouragement of highly profitable landowners and strong peasant farms. 1933 - inheritance law.
The social base of the regime. It would seem that dissatisfaction with the regime should grow: terror and repression, the Gestapo and concentration camps, forced labor service for boys and girls from 18 to 25 years old, a ban on moving from one enterprise to another, etc. However, since 1935 - mode stability, and up to the last days of the war.
This was facilitated by:
1) overcoming the economic crisis, eliminating unemployment, high rates of economic growth, growth in the standard of living of the population
2) social politics- a system of broad social support guaranteed by the state (in exchange for political loyalty). Social charity is very purposeful, targeted (help with clothes, shoes, food, etc.). State charity - organization for workers and employees of a system of cheap rest (rest homes), tourism, encouragement physical education, sports, amateur theatres.
3) Women's and youth policy. Emphasizing the role of the family (helping young families). Caring for the younger generation (a healthy mind in a healthy body).
4) a very large place in the politics of the Nazis played propaganda. A special Ministry of Education and Propaganda (Goebbels) was created. used various forms and methods:
Through the media, radio, print, film
Especially - oral propaganda (Hitler believed that mass gatherings have a greater effect than reading newspapers - the "crowd effect") - meetings, lectures, but most importantly - rallies, anniversary meetings, campaigns, marches, torchlight processions, etc.
Weimar Republic turned out to be short-lived, weak. Causes:
1) The main thing is democratic politic system functions effectively only if it is based on a stable economic foundation, and it just did not exist in Germany.
2) economic ruin, the collapse of the economy, hyperinflation led to severe impoverishment and ruin of many categories of the population - small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, artisans, merchants, peasants, freelancers
3) In a short time - a sharp leap in terms of political development: from a very conservative imperial form of government to one of the most democratic republics of its time. But: there were no deep democratic traditions in Germany. Discontent against democracy and parliamentary system - the idea of a strong government that will take care of the interests of the common people
4) the economic power of the Junkers was fully preserved; conservative-reactionary forces (bureaucrats, the top of the army) survived. Many of them did not accept the republic from the very beginning and dreamed of the restoration of the monarchy
5) there were anti-democratic features in the political system of Germany, in particular, the great powers of the president.
6) a huge psychological shock from the defeat and the humiliating conditions of the Treaty of Versailles
7) objectively, the communists also acted on the collapse of the republic, based on their strategy “the worse, the better”, i.e. the faster the socialist revolution will take place.
The world economic crisis that broke out in 1929 became the crisis of the Weimar Republic. Barely on its feet, the German economy, weighed down by the burden of reparations, did not have serious reserves to resist the crisis. + In the context of the crisis that began, US banks, instead of issuing new loans to Germany, began to withdraw their capital back. As a result - the ruin of German banks, the bankruptcy of small and medium-sized enterprises, the fall in production, inflation, rising prices, unemployment. In the summer of 1931, when the economic crisis threatened complete collapse, Germany asked for a year's delay in the payment of the next reparation contribution. In November 1932, the German government announced that it was impossible to resume the payment of reparations at the end of the moratorium.
The termination of payments on reparations somewhat eased the state of the German economy, however, did not save from the crisis.
Discontent is growing inside Germany, and even hostility towards the republic, parliament, respectively, and towards the Social Democrats, who failed to achieve economic and political stability in the country. It was clearly revealed weakness of the supreme power. Inter-party strife rendered parliament incompetent.
Under these conditions, the success of the NSDAP was not accidental. Germany, one might say, was then waiting for its Fuhrer, under any name. To pull the country out of the abyss of disaster, a strong government was needed. The Nazis were ready to take responsibility, they offered a radical program for the renewal of the country.
1) First of all, success was largely predetermined by the demand " Down with Versailles!» (“equality of rights for German people in relation to other peoples and the abolition of the Treaty of Versailles"). The Germans associated all troubles and misfortunes with him. The most difficult terms of the treaty gave rise to feelings of national humiliation of the Germans.
2) the demand for agrarian reform, the elimination of unemployment (" right to work”), creating and maintaining a prosperous middle class, control over trusts (“ nationalization of trusts, participation in the profits of large enterprises”), expropriation of unearned income (“ merciless struggle against speculators and usurers"), confiscation of large department stores and their transfer to small traders.
3) in social sphere promised to raise the level of health care, provide for the elderly, protect the rights of mother and child, prohibit child labor, and reform the education system.
4) requirement strong central government with absolute powers. Only such a power can restore peace and order in the country. They promised to restore the former greatness of the German nation, to put an end to national humiliation (“ unification of all Germans on the basis of the right to self-determination with the aim of creating a Greater Germany»).
5) requirement "new lands and territories for the enrichment of the people and the resettlement of our excess population." "No person of non-German blood may be a member of the nation(to have civil rights).
November 8-9, 1923 - the first attempt to break through to power (" beer putsch")- an attempt to overthrow the government in Munich and start a campaign against Berlin. But an armed demonstration of Nazi stormtroopers was dispersed by the police - a pure gamble!
Huge organizational and propaganda work parties:
1) the creation of auxiliary organizations to work with various segments of the population (women's, youth, among doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc.). Hitler Youth. SS - security detachments, SA - assault detachments. Network of territorial and production cells. The party went to the masses!
2) create their own printed publications. "Völkische Beobachter".
3) contacts are established with industrialists, bankers - business people, without whose financial support the NSDAP would not have been able to conduct effective propaganda and large-scale election campaigns.
Why did the Nazis get so much support??
1) economic crisis, mass unemployment and acute social contradictions
2) weakness of democracy, traditional parliamentary parties
3) humiliation from the Treaty of Versailles
4) economic difficulties did not allow to carry out serious social reforms and raise welfare
6) strong labor movement, fear of the "red threat"
7) Socio-psychological prerequisites: the defeat of Germany in the war, the Treaty of Versailles with its injustices, the acute economic and political instability of the first post-war years.
Germany's ruling elite 1) was afraid of the growth of the influence of the communists, a repetition of the Soviet model of development, 2) was disappointed in the ability of traditional political parties to provide a way out of the crisis, 3) wanted a strong government that could prevent revolution, economic collapse and ensure the revival of Germany. Such strength was seen in the NSDAP and its leader.
January 30, 1933. President Hindenburg appoints Hitler chancellor and entrusts him with the formation of a cabinet (a coalition of the NSDAP and the National Conservative Party).
Rise to power Hitler - by legal, parliamentary means, and then begins, in fact, seizure of power, the usurpation of power.
57. The formation of the national - socialist regime in Germany
Main tasks after coming to power:
1) liquidation of the regime of parliamentary democracy and its replacement by a totalitarian dictatorship
2) a complete restructuring of the entire economic life of the country on the basis of a sharp increase in state regulation of the economy (to normalize the economy, shocked by the crisis)
3) expansion and creation of a mass base as a pillar of the regime, ensuring long-term social stability of the regime
Only after completing these tasks, the Nazi leadership could begin to achieve its main goal - the preparation of a new world war in order to establish German dominance in Europe, and then throughout the world.
Within 1.5-2 years, the formation of the Nazi regime took place. The state mechanism of the Weimar Republic was destroyed and a new one was created, moreover, this happened under the slogan of defending democracy.
Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag, as its composition did not reflect, in his opinion, the real state of affairs in the country. I wanted to achieve an absolute victory in the new elections, but there was no complete confidence in success, so a provocation was committed.
February 27, 1933 was staged Reichstag fire, the communists were accused of this action, allegedly preparing a coup d'état (the arrests of the communists, from September 21 to December 23 - a show trial of arsonists in Leipzig, and eventually acquitted, but that will be later).
February 28, 1933 Hindenburg - under pressure from Hitler - on the basis of Article 48 of the Constitution, introduces in the country state of emergency: the operation of the constitution is temporarily suspended, basic democratic rights (freedom of speech, etc.) are abolished.
On March 5, parliamentary elections were held, during which the NSDAP received 43.9% - not enough to receive emergency powers from parliament. Hitler then succeeded in banning the KPD and transferring their mandates (81) to the National Socialists, who now began to dominate parliament.
On March 24, the Reichstag gave Hitler emergency powers- the right to issue decrees (including on budgetary issues and in the field of foreign policy) and rule the country alone for 4 years. (Law "On the elimination of the plight of the people and the state). Formally - temporary, until 1937, in fact, became a permanent basic law.
59. The ideology of national - socialism
1) ideas of German (national) socialism
The essence of German socialism is that there are no classes in German society, there is no antagonism between workers and entrepreneurs, but there are Germans - brothers in blood and fate, poor and rich. State = bearer of socialism, ideas of solidarity, corporatism. The Nazi state is a nationwide state that guards the rights and interests of all members of society
2) The idea of a strong state (statism).
The state = the focus of the national spirit, the guarantee of stability and order (democracy = a synonym for chaos, disorder). The interests of the nation are higher than individual, group, class. Everything for the state, nothing against the state, no one outside the state is the essence of the fascist concept of the state. The absolute priority of the state idea.
According to fascist ideology, the interests of the nation are the highest priority, which the state implements. The nation is the highest and eternal reality based on the community of blood.
The highest form of state government is leaderism (at all levels) - rigid centralization of power in the hands of a narrow circle of the party elite. Leadership cult.
3) nationalism turning into chauvinism and racism
With the help of racial theories, the “specialness”, “exclusivity” of the Aryan race was proved, supposedly called upon to fulfill a special mission, which is hindered by numerous enemies - internal and external. All mankind is divided into 2 unequal groups:
1) the chosen (highest) race == Aryan, the race of masters, the bearer of all virtues, everything perfect, progressive
2) lower races - inferior, carriers of all kinds of vices, "subhuman". Their destruction contributes to the development of society.
Hence the idea of “purity of race” (or “purity of blood”) is derived - one cannot mix with inferior races (prohibition of mixed marriages), the race must be healthy physically and mentally
In order for the feeling of superiority over other people to turn into a readiness for their physical elimination, the preaching of racism was supplemented by a cult of violence (the cult of power as the right of the elect). Some are born to command, while others are born to obey.
3) Pan-Germanism, the idea of "living space" of the German nation (to justify aggression against other states). It is necessary for the Germans. Germany is infringed upon by numerous neighbors and is not given the opportunity to develop. And the Germans are called upon to bring civilization to the whole world. From the idea of the superiority of the Aryan race - the right of the Germans to aggression - the idea of world domination.
4) anti-Semitism: Hitler offered the Germans, suffering from a thousand disasters after the war, one universal culprit, the enemy - the Jews, they are the culprits of all the ills experienced by Germany since the beginning of the century. Jews are "subhuman", carriers of all vices, enemies of the Nazi state. Why the Jews?
Everything negative that happened in society was attributed to the Jews (Jewish communism, Jewish capital, the Jewish press, Jewish politics, etc.), from them all the troubles = the idea of a Jewish conspiracy against the Germans. The Nazis appealed to the mass (ordinary) consciousness of people, their instincts, emotions.
During World War II, it remained neutral. After the war - a crisis (orders from abroad stopped, a decline in production, unemployment, etc.). The highest clergy, the top of the bourgeoisie and landowners considered the only way to establish a military dictatorship to save the monarchy. On September 13, 1923, the commander of the Catalan military district, General Miguel Primo de Rivera, carried out, with their consent, a coup d'état. King Alphonse XIII supported. From 1923 to 1930 - the regime of the military-monarchical dictatorship. Instead of the government - a military directory of generals and admirals. In 1925 the military directory was replaced by a civilian government (which was very unpopular), but the dictator still had unlimited power. The constitution was abolished, the Cortes (parliament) and municipalities were dissolved, local power was in the hands of military governors.
Dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera (1923-1930) - opposition to the regime gradually grew. The deterioration of the economic situation in connection with the beginning of the global economic crisis finally finished off the dictatorship. All contradictions escalated to the limit, so that de Rivera himself was forced to resign.
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